Political Theory Essay

Introduction While approaching the writings of major philosophical figures in the 16th century and the 17th century there emerges several weaknesses in addition to their political thought in their time. In his work, The Foundations of Modern Political Thought, Quentin Skinner’s emphasises the ‘textualist’ approach by the ones writing within the genre of political theory and further claim that they â€Å"rarely supplies us with genuine histories†. 1 Skinner seems to engage in a ‘historical’ approach to the writings of political thought, which goes hand in hand with the social and political context of the period the major works were composed. Indeed, this proves fruitful for this analysis, and therefore it will be provided a narrow historical review of the period the works were written, in order to present the remarkable similarity between the causes of political thought. Accordingly, there will be implemented a comparison of the philosophers, Thomas Hobbes and Jean Bodin, focusing primarily of their concept of the state and the church and the differences between the two models of political thought. In terms of the state, the focus will lie on the citizens and the sovereign rule; in terms of the church, an analysis of its place within the governmental framework will be provided. The primary sources used as a basis for this analysis is the work of Jean Bodin Six Books of the Commonwealth, translated by M. J. Tooley, and Hobbes On the Citizen, edited by Richard Tuck & Michael Silverthorne. In grasping the political works of Thomas Hobbes and Jean Bodin it is important to remember that their perception of the state was born in an age of crisis. As central themes of his political thought Hobbes was concerned with peace, security and order; however, religion was omnipresent throughout his experience of life and through his works. For Hobbes the only valid proposition of a natural religion was that something must have created the world, but who or what is not for certain. 2 Most important he also believed that religious division was a significant factor for the origins of war. The basics of Hobbes theory was to add the will to avoid religious conflict and restore peace into one or a group of biological people that was to further secure the will of the state. Like Hobbes, Bodin was concerned with preserving order and his relation to religion is said to be complex. Although he was less familiar with the New political from his religious thought. ’3 However, entering deeper into the religious life of Bodin it is palpable that he never adhered to one true theological standpoint throughout his lifetime. 4 Another factor of correlation between the two political thinkers is their personal historical background containing the experience of war, which largely contributed as one of their causes for writing. Most known for his work and best-seller, Leviathan, the Englishman Thomas Hobbes was to be acknowledged as an important contribution to the philosophical field in his lifetime and all the way to the 21th century. Hobbes was born in 1588 in Westport raised by his non-wealthy family, fortunately being paid for by his uncle to get an education when the time was right. 5 Entering the field of the enlightened, Hobbes at an age of 54 later produced his first claim to fame, De Cive (On the Citizen), published in Latin edition in 1642 which is characterised as one of the forerunners to his major work Leviathan. Here, it is important reconsider what is omnipresent throughout both, De Cive and Leviathan, namely fear: in order to understand his political thought. Some tend to regard Hobbes as a synonym to the concept of fear even though this impossibly cannot be so, however it does not reject King’s argument that Hobbes had experienced disorder in society and therefore feared political chaos. 6 England during the 17th century can in be referred to as a period of transformation both in terms of politics and religion. Historically, throughout Hobbes lifetime (1588 – 1679) the political circumstances in the years of 1642 to 1651 prove to stand out painted in the colour of red. The Reformation left deep traces and was not yet to relinquish as its religious struggles was to turn into a fight of power between the King and the Parliament. 7 The English Civil war provided an environment such as extreme disorder and civil insecurity to be explanatory for the horrors it brought the 6? 7’8†²? 9 # â€Å" $? *: )? â€Å" : ;0?. / 1– 1? ’? :?! ( 4 ?!! /? $ < @ ( 5 JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHICAL STUDIES,? ‘? = ‘? 1? *9/? ‘ ;6-. A=? B ;- HTTP://WWW. JSTOR. ORG/STABLE/3745504 0 , $ *3 @ 3 9 )? +? 2 ;A1. / =0 A? 8? ‘? 9’? C D7 @ % $E $ ‘ ‘ * ‘ F;0.? //’? F B -1 G/? HH222’I ‘ H! H 6;0-6 3 13 Political Theory country8. In a chaotic England, Hobbes had to face his own opponents after he had written the first outline of the philosophy of the state, Elements of Law, Natural and Politic, which created an unstable environment for him to live. Indeed, adversity was for Hobbes the reason he decided to flee and choose the life in exile crossing the national boarders to France. 9 When the Civil War was over, he returned home to the end of his life, still absorbed in scientific activity. A lesser-known philosopher yet one of the most ambitious and prolific French scholars, Jean Bodin, was born in 1529 or 30 in the French area of Angers. Although living in separate time periods Bodin is born three years after Machiavelli’s death (1469 – 1527) and died when Thomas Hobbes was eight years of age and therefore spans precisely between these two. 10 Throughout his lifetime he was, in resemblance to Hobbes, to experience war that provoked his political thinking which prospered into what was to be known as The Six Books of the Commonwealth (1955). Bodin was an admirable scholar and by the time he had to face his mortal destiny he made contributions to the area of science stretching from historiography to political economy. 11 Noticeable that he was among the more enlightened characters of his time, Bodin went to Paris in his youth for educational matters studying humanities. Further curious about the juridical nature of society he went to study civil law until the 1560s, and after he turned to a political career becoming a king’s advocate in Paris. A decade later he became a counsellor of the Duke of Alencon which secured him a seat at the table of the royal family, which ceased before 1576. He then further joined the Catholic League (sometimes referred to as the Holy League) which played a major part in the French Wars of Religion (1562–98) eradicating the Protestants also called the Huguenots. 12 Primarily, The Wars involved the Catholic crown attempting to impose religious uniformity upon the large F? > What further divided the citizens in contemporary France was their support for various versions of the Christian faith that created a warfare of self-righteousness, which for Bodin, was an erroneous societal condition. What Bodin’s beliefs could be said to represent at the time is further dubiously, but as Summerfield argues, Bodin might have believed that â€Å"Catholicism was the best ‘civil religion’ for his countrymen†. 13 Further, Bodin supported religious diversity in that Catholics should have the opportunity to embrace their faith just the Huguenots without having intolerance towards each other. By offering a narrow description of the historical period relevant to both Hobbes and Bodin and further suggest a biographical outlook of both philosophers, the main focus have been on the facts of importance for further analysis. Main section As discussed to some extent in Bodin’s case, it is applicable to both philosophers that they were living in a time where religion was inseparable from their political thinking. Today it may seem strange that politics of much importance was molded around religious beliefs, because we live in a time where each person is free to decide what to believe and which religion to adhere to. During the period of discussion, the church and the state had too many common interests that a division between them seemed unthinkable. For Bodin, his thought behind his Republic was the hope to restore the splendour and serve the interest of the French Monarchy, which functioned as a cornerstone in his description of the commonwealth. 14 In accordance to Hobbes, much like in the case of Bodin, his impetus of his work De Cive lie primarily in providing a solution to the religious moral conflict prevailing in 16th, 17th century England. Bodin and the family In this section, the discussion will point to Jean Bodin’s concept of the state at a micro level. – In Book I, chapter I of the Republic the first sentence acknowledge what Bodin understands to be the nature of the Commonwealth, namely its internal structure being organised around the ?6?

A Vivid Dream Zechariah 3:1-10

Introduction The book of Zechariah is full of vivid imagery and peculiar visions that all help in the conveying of God’s message. This paper will examine the specific vision described in Zechariah 3:1-10. The intent of this essay is to examine the message of this vivid vision that Zechariah received and also to determine the application for readers at that time and for believers today. Compare English Versions The first step in studying this passage had been to read it over and over in multiple English translations to get a feel for how it could be interpreted in English.While there is some difference in the wording of different English translations it does not seem to change what is being communicated in the text. Some interesting differences in v. 4b do appear when describing the new clothing that is given to Joshua, it is described as simply a â€Å"change of raiment† (King James) or more elaborately â€Å"pure elaborately† (ESV) and in the NRSV â€Å"festal apparel†. The following verse describes the charge unto Joshua from the Angel of the Lord as being â€Å"protested† (King James) or â€Å"gave his charge† or even â€Å"spoke very solemnly† (Living Bible) which all seem much different than â€Å"assured† (NRSV).There is obviously some discrepancy as to the tone of this charge. Overall, the different English translations all describe a very similar vision experience. Structural Outline 1. Clean clothes for Joshua (3:1-5) 1. 1 Set the scene (3:1) 1. 2 Rebuke of Satan (3:2) 1. 3 Removal of iniquity (3:3-4) 1. 4 Clean garments and turban (3:5) 2. Promises from the Angel of the Lord (3:6-10) 2. 1 Joshua’s Commission (3:6-7) 2. 2 Promise of a coming Servant (3:8) 2. 3 In that Day (3:9-10) Genre of the Text This section of text is from the Prophet of Zechariah which places it in the genre of prophetic literature; however it also resembles apocalyptic iterature like that found in the book of Revelati on. What distinguishes this type of literature as apocalyptic is the obvious vision that is being described here (Miller 134). The scene for this vision is a courtroom with Joshua being on trial before the angel of the Lord. The vision then concludes with some messianic prophecy referring to the Messiah as â€Å"the Branch† (v. 8) and a promise is made for that day when â€Å"every one of you will invite his neighbor to come under his vine and his fig tree†. This is apocalyptic literature in the form of a vision conveying a messianic promise to those who will listen.Research the Text When reading this genre of literature, understanding whom it was written by is important to fully interpret the text. Zechariah’s name means â€Å"the Lord remembers† and is one of the most commonly used names in the OT (Miller 135). Zechariah’s name, along with his message, consistently reminded the nation that the Lord had made a covenant with Israel† (Klein 20 ). It is also a priestly name which could indicate Zechariah was a Priest as well as a Prophet (Miller 134) but this could also mean that he simply comes from a line of Priests (Klein 21).The first two chapters develop Zechariah as a â€Å"young man† (v. 4) who has an ear turned toward God in a difficult time in Israel’s history. It is also essential to understand the historical context that this text was written into. The book of Zechariah would fit into the Post-Exilic era of Israel’s history, after the return of God’s people to the city and the re-construction of the temple in Jerusalem had started. The message was directed to the â€Å"struggling Jewish returnees† (Miller 134) who would have been largely affected by the time in exile in Babylon.The Babylonians had recently been conquered by the Persian Empire and so great change for the nation of Israel was happening once again. Haggai and Zechariah (written at the similar time periods) both em phasize the everlasting Kingdom of God and the coming of a Messiah. The people of Judah would have been concerned about how their nation would survive in a world of such large superpower empires like Assyria, Babylon and now Persia. Would God ever demonstrate his power and establish his people as the most powerful of nations? Have the people paid their dues in exile?Why had he allowed them to go and return to their land and rebuild the temple? These questions would have been on the minds of the people at the time when Zechariah received this vision. This vision describes a courtroom scene involving some specific characters. The first character is introduced simply as â€Å"he† (3:1). This would be the same he as is mentioned in the previous chapter as â€Å"a man with a measuring line in his hand! † (2:1), and this man continues to be a messenger declaring the coming of the Lord (2:10) from his Holy dwelling (2:13).It seems as if it could be the same angel who â€Å"c ame again† in 4:1. Other commentaries say it is more likely that â€Å"the Lord himself made the revelation since the fourth vision, unlike the former visions, does not identify an angelic interpreter† (Klein 131). It seems however that ch. 3 continues on from the vision in chapter 2 and all the visions so far have had an angel to guide Zechariah through what he is seeing not the Lord personally. The next difficult part of this text is the uncleanliness of the High Priest named Joshua.The rebuilding of the temple was occurring at this time in Jerusalem and the High Priest would have been needed to oversee the running of the temple when it was completed but here Zechariah receives the revelation that the high priest is not fit for this service. The scene is this; the Angel of the Lord is the judge, the High Priest is on trial and the ‘adversary’ or the persecutor is â€Å"Satan† who is accusing the High Priest (3:1). The mention of the â€Å"filthy g arments† (v. 3) was significant when referring to a Priest in particular as the clothing of the Priest was to be to very specific standards (Lev. 8:5-9).This indicates that Satan’s accusations would have proved true. Yet, the Lord rebukes Satan. It seems that the Lord is asserting his authority and making the statement that he is the one who declares purity and innocence, he is the judge not Satan or the enemy or the adversary (the word Satan could be interpreted with any of those words). One commentator comments on this section that â€Å"Satan was reminding the Lord of the nation’s past wretchedness (1:2,4-6) and its unworthiness† (Miller 163) another commentator emphasizes this point â€Å"If the high priest is so filthy, how much more the nation as a whole† (Klein 133).Klein goes onto describe how this Joshua figure played a key role in the restoration of the returning community at this time in history and would have served as an excellent symbo l to represent the returning remnant. So the beginning of this text paints a significant picture of the nation of Israel’s guilt and the Lord’s rebuking of Satan for being so audacious as to make such a claim. The Lord responds by declaring Joshua’s innocence. In v. 4 the angel who is standing as Judge (most likely the LORD himself as he has the divine authority to bring judgment) declares that the filthy garments shall be removed.This reveals not the innocence of guilt but the pardoning of guilt. There is a demonstration of God’s forgiveness happening in this vision. Another question that arises has to do with who the witnesses are that are surrounding this trial scene and assist with the redressing of Joshua the High Priest as his pure clothes (vv. 4&5)? They are also brought up in v. 8 as â€Å"your friends who sit before you, for they are men who are a sign†. Klein refers to them simple as the â€Å"unknown angels† (139). The imagery of the Priest being dressed in clean garments is a common imagery and is used in Ps 132:9 â€Å"May your priests be clothed with righteousness†.The clean turban seems to be â€Å"the finishing touch. On the high priest’s turban was a plate of pure gold inscribed with the words: â€Å"HOLY TO THE LORD† (Exod. 28:36; 39:30). All of this is witnessed by the â€Å"Angel of the LORD [who] was standing by† (3:5b), adding to the legitimacy and importance of what is occurring. The Lord has sent his personal emissary to oversee what is occurring (Klein 141). The filthy garments have been removed and replaced with pure and clean clothes, now Joshua is ready to receive his commission. Now we arrive at the angel of the LORD’s commission of Joshua in v. . The discrepancy in the English translation of the description of this commission (described above) is not commented by Klein or Miller. The best translation seems to be â€Å"solemnly assured† (ESV) as it raises the importance on what it about to be said and that it will be a positive commission, an assurance. The commission has three parts. The first part is a call to be obedient, the second part is the reward if he is obedient which includes authority to rule in the temple, and the third part is the right to be included in the witnesses who surround them.Klein comments on this second reward, that it will allow Joshua â€Å"the high priest, whom the Lord exalts still higher, will have a direct access to the throne of God. Only the high priest could enter the holy of holies, and only once a year (Lev 16), but the declaration made to Joshua far surpasses this privilege by granting Joshua entry into the Lord’s heavenly throne room. † The scene in the courtroom has now moved from one of accusation to a scene of forgiveness and of honoring the high priest and therefore also the people of Judah.Next, the angel of the Lord prepares to make a promise (v. 8a) by calling Joshua to listen! â€Å"The verbal form mirrors that found in the Shema in Deut. 6:4, emphasizing the importance of the message to follow† (Klein 143). The message is to be directed to Joshua’s â€Å"friends who sit before you, for they are men who are a sign† (3:8a). It would seem reasonable that these friends of Joshua are fellow priests, or at least people who also hold a place of leadership among the returning community of Judah.Klein comments that this sign is that â€Å"Joshua’s fellow priests, however, symbolize good things the future will bring† (143). The future embodiment of this blessing will be in the servant who is the one called â€Å"the Branch†. These titles â€Å"servant† and â€Å"the Branch† are very common in the OT. The title â€Å"the Branch† links the messiah figure directly to the line of David (Miller 165) and the title of servant is reminiscent of the significant affirmation God gives to characters su ch as Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (Deut. 9:27) and the same Hebrew word (ebed) is translated as â€Å"servant of the Lord† (Klein 145).The messianic imagery continues with the imagery of the stone as it has elsewhere in scripture, â€Å"The stone the builders rejected has become the capstone; the Lord has done this, and it is marvelous in our eyes† (Isa 8:13-15; 28:16). Other interpretation of this stone is that it is referring to the cornerstone that would be used to build the new temple (Klein 147). This entire passage however seems to be concerned with the messiah and continued representation of him seems to be more likely, especially when considering the temple was most likely already completed at this time (Klein 147).The seven eyes on the stone would then represent the all-seeing and all-knowing power of this messiah. The concluding verse of this text affirms that this Messiah figure will bring about the desired peace and continued relationship that his people desi re. The imagery of sitting under a vine and â€Å"his fig tree† seems related to the title of â€Å"the Branch† as well and links the time of well-being with the Davidic Messiah who is to come. The vision concludes with an image of peace, prosperity, community and relationship. Relate the Parts In the concluding image the main purpose of this vision seems to be captured.The opening scene acknowledges the guilt of the accused and then removes that guilt, rebuking Satan, declaring that no one but the LORD is the judge. It welcomes the community to come around and participate in the removing of the guilt and the placing on of purity. However, the second section reveals that there is a further command now to live a life worthy of these shiny new clothes. Then it all concludes with the revelation of the source of this forgiveness and acceptance, who is â€Å"the Branch†, servant and stone, the messiah. The Theology How does this text reveal the nature of God?The visi on sets God up as the Judge, but what kind of judge? One who sees the guilt of his high priest and the people of Judah but removes that guilt. What gives him this kind of power? The prophets serve to remind God’s people of the covenant that they have with God and this should be kept in mind when considering who this Judge is. He made the law that the people are guilty of iniquity against. They sinned against him. Just as a debtor is the only one who can release someone from their debt, so the lawgiver is the only one who can forgive the lawbreakers.What is the Judge’s reason then for pardoning his people? The iniquity of the priest would have prevented the coming of his people to worship at the temple. Here is a judge that longs to be part of his people’s lives. He will also provide the means for this to happen in the future with the coming of his servant, he wants to be directly involved, personally involved. The end result of all this sounds much like street p arty. Through the cleansing of our iniquity we gain the honor beyond or expectation and with our neighbor in a prosperous land (v. 10).This is God’s reason for pardoning his people; this is the God we worship. Application How often have I worn the filthy clothes around this week? I constantly believe in the accusations of Satan, that I am a terrible friend, a terrible boyfriend that I simply use the people around me. What happens then? I live like that. When I believe those accusations I lie in light of those accusations. The importance of believing that God has dressed me in clean clothes is undeniable; he has got me ready for a party and declared me worthy of that invitation.Now it is time to live like I am heading to that party. I am who God declares me to be. Another application exists communally. Now the church knows who the messenger who was spoken of here is. We know Jesus and in this text in Zechariah he is once again emphasized as the one who came from God to bring a bout the peace and love of community when he comes. Should not the church also live as people free to enjoy the community of each other and of God? That is why Christ came, that is why he was sent.

Criminology and Terrorism

J. Paul BatraProfessor Barnes Research Paper Final due 4/19/10 April 1, 2010 Terrorism Introduction Terrorism is defined loosely based on the Latin word Terre, which means to frighten. To be considered an act of terrorism, which is a political crime, an act must carry with it the intent to disrupt and the change the government and should not be merely a common-law crime committed for greed or egotism. The discipline of economics has many concepts that are relevant to an understanding of terrorism — supply and demand — costs and benefits, etc. Fully-developed economic or econometric models of terrorism are quite rare, however, and often involve such things as â€Å"psychic† costs and benefits (Nyatepe-Coo 2004). More down-to-earth economic theories can be found in the literature on deterrence. Rational choice theory, in particular, has found a place in criminology, and holds that people will engage in crime after weighing the costs and benefits of their actions to arrive at a rational choice about motivation after perceiving that the chances of gain outweigh any possible punishment or loss. The second theory that can explain the motivation behind terrorism is the relative deprivation hypothesis which is the idea that as a person goes about choosing their values and interests, they compare what they have and don't have, as well as what they want or don't want, with real or imaginary others. The person then usually perceives a discrepancy between what is possible for them and what is possible for others, and reacts to it with anger or an inflamed sense of injustice. We should be advised that debates exist within criminology regarding relative deprivation and terrorism, on the one hand, with the anomie or strain tradition which finds causal influence in such objectivist factors as Gross Domestic Product, and on the other hand, with the left realist tradition which finds causal influence in subjective experiences of deprivation or discomfort Crime Characteristics of Terrorism: Terrorism is not new, and even though it has been used since the beginning of recorded history it can be relatively hard to define. Terrorism has been described variously as both a tactic and strategy; a crime and a holy duty; a justified reaction to oppression and an inexcusable abomination. Obviously, a lot depends on whose point of view is being represented. Terrorism has often been an effective tactic for the weaker side in a conflict. As an asymmetric form of conflict, it confers coercive power with many of the advantages of military force at a fraction of the cost. Due to the secretive nature and small size of terrorist organizations, they often offer opponents no clear organization to defend against or to deter. The United States Department of Defense defines terrorism as â€Å"the calculated use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious, or ideological. † Within this definition, there are three key elements—violence, fear, and intimidation—and each element produce terror in its victims. The FBI uses this: â€Å"Terrorism is the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives. † The U. S. Department of State defines â€Å"terrorism† to be â€Å"premeditated politically-motivated violence perpetrated against non-combatant targets by sub-national groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience. (International Terrorism and Security Research). Technological terrorism is defined as actions directed against infrastructure elements critically important for national security or committed with the use of especially hazardous technologies, technical means, and materials. In considering technological terrorism scenarios, the primary impact factors of such terrorist acts initiate secondary catastrophic processes with a significantly higher (tens and hundreds of times) level of secondary impact factors that affect the targets of the ttack, their personnel, the public, and the environment. (Nikolai A. Makhutov, Vitaly P. Petrov, and Dmitry O. Reznikov, Russian Academy of Sciences Institute of Machine Sciences )Although what we don't know about the psychology of terrorism is more than what we do know, there have been several promising attempts to merge or combine psychology with sociology (and criminal justice) into what might be called terrorist profiling (Russell and Miller 1977; Bell 1982; Galvin 1983; Strentz 1988; Hudson 1999). This line of inquiry actually has a long history, and includes what rare studies exist of female terrorists. The earliest study (Russell and Miller 1977) found that the following people tend to join terrorist organizations: †¢ 22-25 years of age †¢ 80% male, with women in support roles †¢ 75-80% single †¢ 66% middle or upper class background †¢ 66% some college or graduate work †¢ 42% previous participation in working class advocacy groups †¢ 17% unemployed †¢ 18% strong religious beliefs IBLIOGRAPHY NOTE: Characteristics of Technological Terrorism Scenarios and Impact Factors* http://www. nap. edu/openbook. php? record_id=12490=53 The Economics theory of Rational Choice Theory as a theory of terrorism contends that these criminals usually come to believe their actions will be beneficial — to themselves, their community, or society — AND they must come to see that crime pays, or is at least a risk-free way to better their situatio n. Perhaps the most well-known version of this idea in criminology is routine activities theory (Cohen and Felson 1979), which postulates that three conditions must be present in order for a crime to occur: (1) suitable targets or victims who put themselves at risk; (2) the absence of capable guardians or police presence; and (3) motivated offenders or a pool of the unemployed and alienated. Other rational choice theories exist which delve further into models of decision making. In the few models of collective iolence that have found their way into criminology, the Olson hypothesis (source unknown) suggests that participants in revolutionary violence predicate their behavior on a rational cost-benefit calculus to pursue the best course of action given the social circumstances. Bibligraphy note: (THEORIES AND CAUSES OF TERRORISM) http://www. apsu. edu/oconnort/3400/3400lect02. htm) .   As far as we know, most terrorists feel that they are doing nothing wrong when they kill and injure p eople. They seem to share a feature of the psychological condition known as antisocial personality disorder or psychopathic personality disorder, which is reflected by an absence of empathy for the suffering of others. However, they do not appear unstable or mentally ill for this. A common feature is a type of thinking such as â€Å"I am good and right. You are bad and wrong. †Ã‚   It is a very polarized thinking which allows them to distance themselves from opponents and makes it easier for them to kill people. It is not the same kind of simplistic thinking one would expect from someone with low intelligence or moral development. Most terrorists are of above average intelligence and have sophisticated ethical and moral development. A closed-minded certainty is a common feature of terrorist thinking. (Merari 1990). Relative Deprivation occurs where individuals or groups subjectively perceive themselves as unfairly disadvantaged over others perceived as having similar attributes and deserving similar rewards (their reference groups). It is in contrast with absolute deprivation, where biological health is impaired or where relative levels of wealth are compared based on objective differences – although it is often confused with the latter. Subjective experiences of deprivation are essential and, indeed, relative deprivation is more likely when the differences between two groups narrows so that comparisons can be easily made than where there are caste-like differences. The discontent arising from relative deprivation has been used to explain radical politics (whether of the left or the right), messianic religions, the rise of social movements, industrial disputes and the whole plethora of crime and deviance. The usual distinction made is that religious fervour or demand for political change are a collective response to relative deprivation whereas crime is an individualistic response. But this is certainly not true of many crimes – for example, smuggling, poaching or terrorism – which have a collective nature and a communal base and does not even allow for gang delinquency which is clearly a collective response. The connection is, therefore, largely under-theorized – a reflection of the separate development of the concept within the seemingly discrete disciplines of sociology of religion, political sociology and criminology. The use of relative deprivation in criminology is often conflated with Merton's anomie theory of crime and deviance and its development by Cloward and Ohlin, and there are discernible, although largely unexplored, parallels. Anomie theory involves a disparity between culturally induced aspirations (eg success in terms of the American Dream) and the opportunities to realise them. The parallel is clear: this is a subjective process wherein discontent is transmuted into crime. Furthermore, Merton in his classic 1938 article, ‘Social Structure and Anomie', clearly understands the relative nature of discontent explicitly criticising theories which link absolute deprivation to crime by pointing to poor countries with low crime rates in contrast to the wealthy United States with a comparatively high rate. But there are clear differences, in particular Mertonian anomie involves an inability to realise culturally induced notions of success. It does not involve comparisons between groups but individuals measuring themselves against a general goal. The fact that Merton, the major theorist of reference groups, did not fuse this with his theory of anomie is, as Runciman notes, very strange but probably reflects the particular American concern with ‘winners' and ‘losers' and the individualism of that culture. The empirical implications of this difference in emphasis are, however, significant: anomie theory would naturally predict the vast majority of crime to occur at the bottom of society amongst the ‘losers' but relative deprivation theory does not necessarily have this overwhelming class focus. For discontent can be felt anywhere in the class structure where people perceive their rewards as unfair compared to those with similar attributes. Thus crime would be more widespread although it would be conceded that discontent would be greatest amongst the socially excluded. The future integration of anomie and relative deprivation theory offers great promise in that relative deprivation offers a much more widespread notion of discontent and its emphasis on subjectivity insures against the tendency within anomie theory of merely measuring objective differences in equality (so called ‘strain' theory) whereas anomie theory, on its part, offers a wider structural perspective in terms of the crucial role of differential opportunity structures and firmly locates the dynamic of deprivation within capitalist society as a whole. To be completed: Application: Conclusion: Bibliography

Tools of Monetary Policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Tools of Monetary Policy - Essay Example The effect of increasing the discount rate on the money supply is shown below in diagram 1. In part (a), the demand for reserves is not high enough and as a result there are no changes in the equilibrium reserve holdings. In part (b) there is a high demand for reserves and as a consequence, there is a decline in the equilibrium reserve holdings. Figure 1: Impact of increases in the discount rate In the diagram above, there is an increase in the discount rate from to . Consequentially the supply of reserves schedule rises from to . However, observe that in part (a) the demand for reserves are lower than in part (b). In particular the demand for reserves schedule is not high enough in part (a) to substantiate any efficacy of increasing the discount rate. In fact in such a scenario, a decline in the discount rate could have an impact by increasing the equilibrium reserve holdings if the rate is lowered below the bank rate. However, this will make sense if the resulting effect of increas ed money supply is the desired result. As a result, albeit the increase in the discount rate leads to a rise in the supply of reserves, there is no change in the equilibrium holdings. Thus, there is no discount lending in this case. In part (b) the increase in the supply of reserves leads to a reduction in the equilibrium discount reserve holdings from R0 to R1. Note that in this case lowering the discount rate would have had an impact as well but of the opposite kind. Alternatively, the central banking authority of an economy has to right of denying or controlling the amount of loans directly. Thus it has a control over the money supply of the nation directly via a control over the sanctioning of discount loans. In particular, loans forwarded to financial institutions by the central banks belong to any of the following three classes: a) primary loans, b) secondary loans and c) seasonal loans. Primary loans are the credit supplies to healthy or financially stable banks or financial institutions. Secondary credits are the loans that are forwarded with a designated purpose only in which the credit accepting institution can put the loan in use. Finally, seasonal loans are the short term credit that is forwarded under discount rates generally to help institutions overcome temporary liquidity shortages and emergencies. Thus by controlling the amount of reserves financial institutions have, the central bank can restrict the amount of money supply in the economy. How may central Bank help prevent bank panics by acting as a lender of last resort? Support your answer using examples of such events. Bank runs or panic runs to the bank are caused by the fear that the bank will become insolvent and will fail to return the amount of deposits. The central problem is that this has a cascading effect and actually becomes a self fulfilling prophesy since as the number of people withdrawing their funds increases, the liquidity of the bank decreases. Further with the number of wi thdrawals rising, other customers fearing insolvency also begin withdrawing their own deposits. Since banks never hold all of the depositors' money as reserves at any point of time, if a large number of customers begin withdrawing all their funds, the bank does become insolvent fast. This phenomenon was a central problem

American economics history exam Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

American economics history exam - Assignment Example The action of Federal Reserve to raise interest rates hoping to slow the rapid rise in stock prices depressed interest-sensitive spending in institutions such as automobile purchases and construction. In addition, it resulted to the crash of the stock market, thus reducing the American aggregate demand substantially. The U.S. government has centralized great power and responsibility in one institution, which is the Federal Reserve in making significant decisions in relation to the economy. The significance of having a well-defined and secure property rights as it gives people the exclusive right of using their resources as they see fit (James 16). The fact that individuals are the dominion of their property, they take full account of the entire costs and benefits of employing those resources in a specific manner. The process in which they weigh costs and benefits produces efficient outcomes; therefore, translating into more prominent standards of living. However, in the last decades, during the history of modern economics, economists did not see the importance of property rights. Property rights impact the efficiency of resource allocation whereby the limit expropriation and facilitate market transactions. Moreover, they enhance investment incentives by limiting expropriation risk and reducing motive of diverting private resources in order to protect property. For an instant in U.S., the government has developed policies that protect the individuals’ property r ights in order for these individuals to trade in assets and improve collateralization of those assets. In the American history, between 1870’s to 1930’s, there were battles on business property because the judiciary saw that it was necessary to protect the general welfare (James 17). The problems with the Articles of Confederation were that the Articles were not precisely accurate or exact in an absolute sense. It is in the sense that when the Articles are viewed in a

International Students Care Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

International Students Care - Assignment Example The people I interviewed were involved with marketing responsibilities primarily in publicly traded corporations and small businesses, chosen because of their expertise in the field and professionalism. The following is a summary of what I learned from the questions in the interviews with the three subjects: Person#1 - Lindsey (Marketing Department – GEICO Insurance): Marketing is a busy job and the markets are always changing. Marketing is a field of possible under-employment for a M.B.A. graduate, though may lead to company career progress. Marketing is people and image oriented, requiring a professional demeanor and conduct. There is a vast difference in the quality of marketing jobs from company to company. Person #2 - Keith (Accounting – Lee’s Golf Superstores) You have to love math and numbers to enjoy accounting because lots of people find it a boring job. There is lots of work in the accounting department in any company, so search for the company that ref lects a wider personal interest. The accounting department may lead to direct management or training in some instances such as small business. Accounting is heavily related to IT (Information Technology) in modern business. Person #3 - Holly (Hospitality – Best Western Hotels): Social people seek success in this career realm because being social is a needed aspect of personality for most people. Working in groups is much easier in the business world than in university. You learn in the business world more than what you learn in university. Technology has made marketing easier, more inexpensive, and faster to reach its market audience. Challenging preconceptions in the marketing field is what keeps you moving forward in your career I chose these three people for the interview because of my interest in working in similar fields, as well as because of their expertise displayed in the career. I also had the advantage of knowing these people personally, and wanted to use my connec tion with them to explore the ideas of networking and gain more understanding of practical business management issues. Interview #1 - Marketing My interview subject in Marketing was Lindsey, who works in the GEICO Insurance Company as an advertising representative. Her job duties primarily incorporate the management of local advertising campaigns with national or corporate plans and material. She maintains networking contacts with over 100 different publications, advertisers, direct-mail printers, and other groups. She does not have responsibility for the GEICO website, as it is a national job. However, she does have to work intensively to manage central corporate policies and strategies related to marketing in the local environment. To do that, she values personal skills and positive thinking in business contacts and activities. Nevertheless, she feels underemployed in this position with an M.B.A. and would like to move up to more senior level management positions in the company. G EICO is owned primarily by Warren Buffett’s Berkshire Hathaway Group, making this potentially one of the better companies in America to work for in terms of salary and benefits. Lindsey said, â€Å"

Delta Airlines Case Analysis Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Delta Airlines Case Analysis - Research Paper Example The company has alliance partners that enable it to provide greater connectivity to its customers. In addition to the legacy model the company also has a subsidiary named Delta Express which is the low cost model of the airline company. The company has a large fleet at its service numbering about 700 aircrafts that includes small planes to jumbo jets for long haul flights (Delta Airlines, 2011). Products Delta Air has a service portfolio that provides air travel facility to customers. The service portfolio of the company is comprised mainly of a full time legacy carrier model as well as a low cost model. The bulk of business is focused towards the legacy carrier that provides air connectivity not only in the domestic market in USA but also to a large number of nations abroad. The company also has alliance partnerships with leading alliances that helps increase the connectivity. In addition the company also has a hub and spoke model and a code share agreement to broaden its area of se rvice offering. Customer Satisfaction Customers form the main area of focus for the strategists at the organization. Every effort is being made to ensure the full satisfaction of the customer. The customers are provided with wide range of facilities that includes on board entertainment, food etc. Customers also have the option of web check in and internet bookings. The company also has loyalty points for frequent travellers. Due to its dedicated efforts towards customer satisfaction the company was ranked 1st in the Fortune’s list of most favoured airlines (Delta Airlines-a, 2011). Internal Environment Analysis SWOT Analysis SWOT is an acronym for Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats. The following section would analyse the strengths, weakness opportunities and threats faced by the airline. Strengths The main area of strength for Delta Airlines arises from its strong brand image and a formidable market position in the US market. The airline has a very large network helping it connect with a large number of both domestic as well as international destinations. The hub and spoke model of the airline also contributes to its success story. The existing hubs at Atlanta and New York provide competitive advantage to the organization (Datamonitor, 2007, p.24). Weakness The major weaknesses in the firm arise from the dip in demand for the services due to the ongoing effects of the financial crisis. The company also faces issues with regard to low yield of passengers and dip in cargo volume business. In addition to this high cost of fuel and labour also serve to generate considerable weakness on the business prospects of the organization (Datamonitor, 2007, p.24). Opportunities Opportunities for Delta Air mainly arise from the high growth of passenger traffic mainly in the Asia Pacific region and Latin America. In addition to this growth of cargo over the pacific has also improved showing good opportunities for the organization (Datamonitor, 2007, p.24). Opportunities for the organization also arise from the fact that the markets across US and